Sequencing (NGS, WES, WGS)

Next-generation sequencing (NGS) reads DNA or RNA as millions of short overlapping fragments ("reads"). Whole-exome sequencing (WES) covers just the ~1–2% of the genome that codes for protein — cheap and where almost all neoantigen-relevant mutations live; whole-genome sequencing (WGS) covers everything but costs more. RNA-seq does the same for transcripts to capture expression.

Sequencing itself has become a relatively commoditized input — the per-sample cost has fallen dramatically. But it sets a ceiling: coverage depth and read quality bound how trustworthy the final target list can be, so the differentiated value sits in what's done with the data downstream, not in generating it.